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Traditionally,
teachers were concerned with inculcating knowledge in particular
curricular areas. There is now much more awareness of the skills which
pupils need in society and concern as to how best to develop these skills. Other papers in the Toolkit consider effective ways of helping pupils to
acquire knowledge. This paper will consider skills linked to learning and
the “generic” skills which are developed within the curriculum.
Points Arising from
Research
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There may be a tension between traditional subject teaching and the
need to develop “generic” skills which will be useful to individuals and
to society |
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Pupils need to develop skills and attitudes for lifelong learning in a
rapidly changing society |
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Instrumental Enrichment strategies have been seen to improve academic
attainment (see below)
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Key Elements of Skills and
Knowledge
The theory of Structural Cognitive Modification (SCM)
This theory, developed by Reuven Feuerstein, focuses on the skills
pupils need to learn effectively. Some education authorities, in Britain
and abroad, have adopted his Instrumental Enrichment (IE - or sometimes
FIE) programme in a systematic way.
The theory of Modifiability
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Feuerstein argues, on the basis of decades of research, that all
human being are capable of being modified |
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He points out that effective learning can modify the structure of the
brain |
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He argues that it can also modify behaviour and the structure of
individuals’ thinking |
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He rejects theories which assert that IQ is largely immutable and
dependent on genetics |
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He believes that failings in traditional academic or IQ assessments have
been related to individuals’ cultural impoverishment, resulting from lack
of Mediated Learning Experiences (MLE) |
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Vygotsky said that effective learning occurs in the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD), which involves knowing what a pupil’s current state of
knowledge is and assessing his/her potential |
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ZPD theory requires teaching to be geared to this information |
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SCM asserts that it is possible to create effective teaching programmes
for all individuals, even the brain-damaged and severely culturally
deprived by understanding the individual’s ZPD
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Assessment
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SCM involves assessing individuals in ways which are free from
assumptions about cultural experience, language and knowledge |
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Feuerstein devised the Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) which
provides an extremely extensive and varied battery of culture-free tests,
though these are made available only to those trained by Feuerstein’s
International Center for the Enhancement of Learning Potential and are not
widely available |
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However, simpler, more manageable tests can be used such as the
Cognitive Abilities Profile by Ruth Deutsch and Michelle Keene, which give
an indication of an individual’s potential so that teaching can be geared
accordingly
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Instrumental Enrichment (IE)
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Once an individual’s potential has been assessed, a programme of IE is
prepared |
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IE
involves 15 separate types of activity, each designed to help overcome
particular cognitive deficiencies |
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The aim is to develop pupils’ thinking skills and improve their
self-image and motivation |
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The IE programme can make use of Mediate Learning Experiences in which
the mediator (ie the teacher) helps the pupil understand the task to
the point where the pupil can achieve without help |
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Feuerstein claims that the sort of progress resulting from IE is
self-perpetuating |
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Once the cognitive skills have been developed, then the pupil is ready
to tackle more formal, traditional curricular material, though he
believes that an IE supervisor should oversee a pupil’s progress
when he or she enters the mainstream curriculum |
Inclusion
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The SCM theory is a powerful tool in the agenda of inclusion |
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Academic failings are seen largely as the result of lack of MLE in the
child’s background |
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One element in SCM is modification of the pupil’s environment, which
involves parents/carers at home, as well as the school environment |
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All individuals are seen to have potential for development |
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The mediator understands the individual and his/her potential |
Research on Instrumental Enrichment
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An
American audit of the school curriculum identified a close
relationship between the cognitive abilities developed through IE and
those taught in the curriculum (See references below to New Horizons
for Learning) |
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A
number of American case studies have identified academic benefits in
the IE approach. An example was in Leander in Texas where pupils were
given significant amounts of time on IE activities instead of Science
and Social Subjects. At the end of the trial these pupils improved
significantly in traditional academic measures over the control
group. (See New Horizons references below) |
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Feuerstein’s own research over many decades is very interesting,
showing remarkable achievements with immigrant children as well as
those with specific disabilities |
Curricular skills - Forgetting Feuerstein….
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Even without adopting SCM approaches, it may be valuable to study the
curriculum to identify ways in which this kind of approach may
be of benefit |
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Evidence suggests that developing cognitive skills in a content-free
way may produce academic gains in subject teaching |
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It
is increasingly important to consider ways in which cross-curricular
liaison in secondary schools can enhance the teaching of skills |
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There have been reports that different subjects have adopted different
approaches to the same skills (eg Maths procedures, letter-writing
etc) |
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A
theme in the development of Personal Learning Plans has been the
identification of “cross-cutting” skills - core competences which
could be assessed across the curriculum |
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Within the Higher Still programme, Core Skills (generic non-subject
specific competences) have been seen as important for pupils’ future
working lives and for lifelong learning |
Reflection and Discussion
Do you see a tension between the needs of the mainstream curriculum and
SCM principles?
Is it worth sacrificing something to help assess and develop individuals’
cognitive abilities?
Apart from SCM, are you happy with the awareness of and emphasis on
“generic” skills?
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Some Activities Relating To
the Issue of Skills and Knowledge |
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Key element |
Objective |
Action |
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Some examples and
suggestions |
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The theory of Modifiability |
Failings in traditional academic or IQ assessments have been related to
individuals’ cultural impoverishment |
It is interesting to compare some of
Feuerstein’s finding in studies of immigrants to Israel with the way some
of our deprived children behave - eg tendencies towards impulsive
behaviour. Is there an argument for consideration of IE
strategies for selected disadvantaged pupils? |
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Assessment |
SCM involves assessing individuals in ways which are free from assumptions |
It is interesting to look at the sorts of
assessment which SCM uses. These are often of a fun nature, with many
visual puzzles and problem-solving tasks. Some of these approaches could
translate to curricular contexts. |
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Instrumental Enrichment |
IE involves 15 separate types of activity |
Robert Fisher’s book (see references) gives
details of the 15 instruments. Have a look at these to consider how this
type of work might find a place in the school context |
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Inclusion |
All individuals are seen to have potential for development |
Feuerstein’s philosophy is highly inclusive. To
some extent this is very much a matter of the teacher’s frame of mind. It
is also related to the teacher’s knowledge of the individual. Do you have
a clear idea of each pupil’s cognitive potential? |
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Research on IE |
Pupils were given significant amounts of time on IE activities instead of
Science and Social Subjects |
Consider this strategy in the context of your own school. Is there an
argument for sacrificing some curricular work in order to make use of
IE-type activities? Is this a whole-school issue or can individual
teachers/departments consider this? |
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Curricular skills |
Cross-curricular liaison in secondary schools |
Secondary teachers can carry out an audit of key skills which are likely
to be of general application. Are there any other curricular areas in
which these are being taught? Can departments/teachers coordinate
approaches to skills teaching? |
Selected References
Further Reading
Fisher, Robert Teaching Children to
Think . Blackwell ISBN 063116426X
Has a chapter on Instrumental Enrichment.
Websites
www.newhorizons.org
has Instrumental Enrichment links, including one to the
following:
Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment: Better Learning for
Better Students by Meir Ben-Hur, which includes
details of case studies of IE trials
and
Feuerstein Instrumental Enrichment (FIE) as a Model for School
Reform by Meir Ben-Hur,
which includes an analysis of
subject skills content compared with IE skills
www.3d-ring.org/cep/theoryoffie.asp
Although perhaps not directly relevant here, the work of Vygotsky
may be of interest in this connection. Various web sites provide
information, including:
http://people.ucsc.edu/~gwells/Files/Papers_Folder/ScientificConcepts.pdf
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