‘A child has a learning difficulty if he has a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of children of his own age or if he has a disability which prevents or hinders him from making use of educational facilities of a kind generally provided in schools for children of his own age.’ Education Act 1981

Learning difficulties may stem from a variety of factors such as cognitive processing differences or difficulties, inappropriate curriculum, a long period of absence from school, a low general ability, mismatch between learning style of pupil and teaching style of teacher or some social and emotional problems.

Points Arising from Research

	With support for innovative thinking, teachers are more likely to re-think their whole curriculum and approach the challenge in an inclusive way
	There is a strong tendency to locate problems within the pupil rather than within the school/curriculum. Interactive approaches help to focus attention on the match between what the pupil brings and needs and what the learning situation offers
	In order to engage the learner we have to offer learning experiences that are meaningful and intrinsically motivating
	A policy of segregation impoverishes the life experience of children in mainstream schools and provides a breeding ground for fear and prejudice against the minorities who are excluded
	A significant number of young people leave compulsory education without the intellectual and social skills which are necessary for adult life
	Individuals who are at risk of being marginalised or alienated from schooling must be supported effectively
	Some parents of children who required additional support said that they often had to fight for the support their child needed

It is important to recognise pupils as individuals with their own educational history and perspective towards schools, teaching and learning. Schools must attempt to meet the needs of all pupils effectively and consider changes in their practices if the needs of all pupils are not being met, especially those with learning difficulties.

Observe the signs

Teachers need to be alert to the possibility that a pupil having learning problems may have an underlying additional support for learning need that should be identified.   Such pupils will need to be monitored carefully and a proper assessment conducted if there is a cause for concern.  Pupils need to be given positive feedback and a personal interest taken in their progress to meet their individual needs (see Toolkit paper on Formative Assessment).

Assess specific difficulties

Diagnostic Assessment overlaps with formative assessment, but identifies specific learning problems and strengths. Certain tests can be used to identify particular needs, and related to the statements of additional support for learning needs.

Access specialist support

Visiting professionals, support staff, parents, carers and the family, and specialists from other schools, all have a significant part to play in determining the curriculum for pupils with learning difficulties. To make the most of their contribution, they need to be involved when establishing the curriculum aims and determining the key curriculum components. Particular attention needs to be given to their role at times of transition.

Under the Integrated Community Schools approach staff are encouraged to see children and families within their wider social context. Such an approach requires the continuing professional development of staff including, where appropriate, joint training between education, social services and health staff. 

Draw up a programme

It is the responsibility of the school to provide a wide range of learning experiences for pupils with learning difficulties suitable for their age and development. All pupils should be provided with opportunities to acquire, develop, practise, apply and extend their skills in a range of contexts across the curriculum. These skills will also be relevant to life and learning outside and beyond the school. Such skills include:

	thinking skills (including information processing, reasoning, enquiry, creative thinking and evaluation)
	skills to make choices, decisions and to choose options that other people act on and respect.
	the key skills of communication (including literacy), application of number, information technology, working with others, improving own learning and performance and problem solving.
	metacognitive skills, encouraging pupils to think about how they direct their cognitive efforts when engaged in a learning activity or learning how to learn.

Questions to help children gain metagognitive control

1. Have I thought it through? Stop and think! Think before you ink!

2. Have I made a plan? PLAN Prepare Learning Actions Now - Mindmap

3. Do I know what to do? Re-read/re-tell the instructions. Check-double-check

4. Is there anything more I need before I begin?

5. What do I know which will help me? Everything is like something. What problem is this like?

Teach

To meet the additional support for learning needs of particular pupils, teachers may be required to develop new skills, particularly if special equipment or materials are involved or if the teacher needs to liaise with other teachers or work with a support teacher.   In Scotland classroom discourse is predominantly undertaken through the medium of the English language, with its associated discourse patterns.   Those children who have not been born into this environment can experience disadvantage when classroom discourse is unfamiliar and not explicitly taught.  

Teachers need to be skilled in enabling all pupils to achieve in the classroom.  

	Plan classroom activities to give pupils the opportunity to express their thinking so that feedback can help develop it
	Formulate feedback so that it guides improvement in learning
	Use activities that demand collaboration so that everyone is challenged and train pupils to listen to and respect one another’s ideas
	Be sure that pupils are active participants in the lessons. Emphasise that learning may depend less on their capacity to spot the right answer and more on their readiness to express and discuss their own understanding

What Inhibits Learning?

Stresses of various kinds, some obvious, some less visible, are causes for many learning difficulties.

	Developmental – lack of sensory stimulation, lack of movement, lack of touch, lack of interactive creative play and communication.
	Electrical – inadequate water consumption, inadequate oxygen, excessive exposure to external EMF’s (electromagnetic fields e.g. satellite discs, mobile phones, fluorescent lights, computers etc.)
	Nutritional – inadequate amounts of protein, lack of essential amino acids and fatty acids, high carbohydrate and sugar diets.
	Medical – low birth weight babies, chronic middle ear infections, allergies, medications, yeast overgrowth, inadequate sleep or diet, substance abuse, child abuse, poor vision or hearing.
	TV, Computers and video games – violence, decreased imaginative development, less interactive communication.
	Competition – inappropriate expectations (at home, school and self-imposed) pressures towards social conformity, competition in sports and the arts, learning in a winner/loser rather than co-operative framework.
	Inappropriate curriculum – constant low-level skills testing, unawareness of or inattention to unique learning styles.

                                                                                         (Hannaford 1995)

	Content – the subject matter may be unfamiliar; they may not have the necessary knowledge.
	Mode - the mode of presentation may ‘throw’ the child, whether it be verbal, pictorial, diagrammatic, and symbolic. Offer the child a wide range of modes.
	Procedures - the child may be deficient in the specific cognitive skills or operations necessary for the information to be processed. The child may need to have practised, or the teacher may need to recall to the child’s mind, the component processes involved in the task.
	Phase of problem – the child may ignore a crucial stage in the learning experience through impulsiveness. He may have ignored the need for more input, for defining the problem, for working things through (elaboration) or for clearly expressing the results
	Complexity - sometimes the sheer detail of information overwhelms the child and help may be needed, to show how complex tasks can be handled successfully, by breaking information down into small steps and manageable bits.
	Abstraction – as the child moves further away from concrete events he moves into more abstract realms of thinking. Children can often cope with quite complex tasks that are embedded in a familiar and objective world, but when removed from reality they find problems with encoding the task in symbolic form. They may well need to go back to concrete examples, or for the teacher to translate to and from the natural and symbolic situations.
	Efficiency – many factors can influence the child’s level of speed and accuracy in a task. Levels of anxiety and motivation play important roles in determining success. Reflective thinking in particular, needs time and children need to be encouraged to take time in selecting and adapting their strategies. ‘Festina lente’ (make haste slowly) should be a guiding principle for all teaching and learning.

(Fisher 2001)

How can you best meet the needs of disadvantaged pupils in your class?

How do you take account of the differing levels of ability amongst a class?

How do you determine pupils’ most appropriate learning style?

Selected References

 
Further Reading

Fisher, R. (2001) Teaching Children To Think Nelson Thornes

Given, B. K. & Reid, G. (1999) Learning Styles: A guide for teachers and parents. St Annes-on-Sea: Red Rose Publications.

Hannaford, C. (1995) Smart Moves Why Learning Is Not All In Your Head Great Ocean Publishers

May, H. (20003) The Engagement of Children with Learning Difficulties in Mainstream Primary Classrooms BERA

Skidmore, D. (2000) Parents’ experiences of the struggle for inclusion BERA

The following publications have relevance to inclusion and equality of opportunity within education. Documentation is available to read online and for download in PDF format:

	Count us in This report is based on a survey by HM Inspectorate of Education of good practice in Scottish schools and identifies seven key messages for practice. (HMIE, 2002)
	Moving Forward! A strategic framework document describing the new evolving framework for support for learning. (SEED, 2003)
	Success For All The project was designed to share good practice and support schools in raising the achievements of pupils with special educational needs through setting targets. (SEED, Northern College, 2002)
	For Scotland's children This report from the Action Team, drawn from local authorities, the National Health Service and the voluntary sector, focuses on how to improve the integration of children's services with the aim of achieving better outcomes for children and families. (Scottish Executive, 2001)
	The Child at the Centre A self-evaluation guide for centres providing pre-school education and day care to children aged 3-5. (Scottish Executive, 2000)
	How good is our school? This publication is designed to help headteachers and teachers in school self-evaluation and to help schools and local authorities with quality assurance processes. (HMIE, 2008)
	National care standards Providers of early education and childcare services will refer to these standards. (Scottish Executive, 2005)
	I feel this challenge and I don't have the background: teaching bilingual pupils in Scottish primary schools - Smyth, Geraldine. This research has focused on evolving a description of the methods and approaches being used by mainstream class teachers in Scottish primary schools to meet the needs of bilingual pupils and an analysis of what informs these practices for teachers working in the macro-context of a lack of explicit policy for support for bilingual pupils.

Websites

Planning, teaching and assessing the curriculum for pupils with learning difficulties www.nc.uk.net These guidelines are for all those who work with pupils with learning difficulties. This includes pupils who are often described as having severe, profound and multiple, or severe learning difficulties, or moderate learning difficulties.

Success for All Web Site: Aberdeen University   www.abdn.ac.uk/education/success/index.hti

The Thinking Classroom  www.thethinkingclassroom.co.uk

This site provides good practical information about multiple intelligences, the features of a thinking classroom, resources and lesson plans.

Birmingham Grid for Learning www.bgfl.org/inclusion

BGfL has some excellent downloadable materials to help schools become inclusive, and links to their pack, ‘Standards for Inclusion: Self-Monitoring for School Improvement’.

Ethnic Minority Attainment (EMA Online) www.emaonline.org.uk/ema/

This growing online resource base for teachers was developed by Birmingham, Leeds and Manchester LEAs. It provides content and links to advice and guidance for teachers and others supporting Black and minority ethnic pupils and those learning English as an additional language

National Children's Bureau www.ncb-books.org.uk/

NCB has a range of useful priced publications on inclusion, disability and special educational needs, including their training pack, ‘Making It Work: Removing Disability Discrimination’.

Inclusive Solutions www.inclusive-solutions.com/

A site set up by two educational psychologists, which provides a newsletter, information about various aspects of inclusion and helpful resources, books, and details of courses at national, regional and local level.

International Dyslexia Association www.interdys.org

The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to helping individuals with dyslexia, their families and the communities that support them.

British Dyslexia Association www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk/

The BDA is the umbrella organisation in the UK for dyslexic people and their site offers support and information for both dyslexic people and those living and working with them.

http://www.senteacher.org/main/links.php#SEN

A useful site for resources and links to a number of support organisations